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     Management Guide to the Protection of Information Resources


National Institute of Standards and Technology

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), is
responsible for developing standards, providing technical assistance,
and conducting research for computers and related systems.  These
activities provide technical support to government and industry in the
effective, safe, and economical use of computers.  With the passage of
the Computer Security Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-235), NIST's activities
also include the development of standards and guidelines needed to
assure the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive
information in Federal computer systems.  This guide represents one
activity towards the protection and management of sensitive
information resources.

Acknowledgments

This guide was written by Cheryl Helsing of Deloitte, Haskins & Sells
in conjunction with Marianne Swanson and Mary Anne Todd, National
Institute of Standards and Technology.

Executive Summary

Today computers are integral to all aspects of operations within an
organization. As Federal agencies are becoming critically dependent
upon computer information systems to carry out their missions, the
agency executives (policy makers) are recognizing that computers and
computer-related problems must be understood and managed, the same as
any other resource. They are beginning to understand the importance of
setting policies, goals, and standards for protection of data,
information, and computer resources, and are committing resources for
information security programs. They are also learning that primary
responsibility for data security must rest with the managers of the
functional areas supported by the data.

All managers who use any type of automated information resource system
must become familiar with their agency's policies and procedures for
protecting the information which is processed and stored within them.
Adequately secure systems deter, prevent, or detect unauthorized
disclosure, modification, or use of information.  Agency information
requires protection from intruders, as well as from employees with
authorized computer access privileges who attempt to perform
unauthorized actions.  Protection is achieved not only by technical,
physical and personnel safeguards, but also by clearly articulating
and implementing agency policy regarding authorized system use to
information users and processing personnel at all levels.  This guide
is one of three brochures that have been designed for a specific
audience.  The "Executive Guide to the Protection of Information
Resources" and the "Computer User's Guide to the Protection of
Information Resources" complete the series.




                          Table of Contents

 Executive Summary .......................................... iv
 Introduction ...............................................  1
 Purpose of Guide ...........................................  1
 The Risks ..................................................  1
 Responsibilities ...........................................  2
 Information Systems Development ............................  5
 Control Decisions ..........................................  5
 Security Principles ........................................  5
 Access Decisions ...........................................  7
 Systems Development Process ................................  7
 Computer Facility Management ...............................  9
 Physical Security ..........................................  9
 Data Security .............................................. 11
 Monitoring and Review ...................................... 11
 Personnel Management ....................................... 13
 Personnel Security ......................................... 13
 Training ................................................... 14
 For Additional Information ................................. 15

Introduction


Purpose of this Guide

This guide introduces information systems security concerns and
outlines the issues that must be addressed by all agency managers in
meeting their responsibilities to protect information systems within
their organizations. It describes essential components of an effective
information resource protection process that applies to a stand alone
personal computer or to a large data processing facility.


The Risks

Effort is required by every Federal agency to safeguard information
resources and to reduce risks to a prudent level.  The spread of
computing power to individual employees via personal computers,
local-area networks, and distributed processing has drastically
changed the way we manage and control information resources. Internal
controls and control points that were present in the past when we were
dealing with manual or batch processes have not been established in
many of today's automated systems. Reliance upon inadequately
controlled computer systems can have serious consequences, including:

 o  Inability or impairment of the agency's ability to perform its
    mission

 o  Inability to provide needed services to the public

 o  Waste, loss, misuse, or misappropriation of funds

 o  Loss of credibility or embarrassment to an agency

To avoid these consequences, a broad set of information security
issues must be effectively and comprehensively addressed.


Responsibilities

All functional managers have a responsibility to implement the
policies and goals established by executive management for protection
of automated information resources (data, processes, facilities,
equipment, personnel, and information).  Managers in all areas of an
organization are clearly accountable for the protection of any of
these resources assigned to them to enable them to perform their
duties. They are responsible for developing, administering,
monitoring, and enforcing internal controls, including security
controls, within their assigned areas of authority.  Each manager's
specific responsibilities will vary, depending on the role that
manager has with regard to computer systems.

Portions of this document provide more detailed information on
the respective security responsibilities of managers of computer
resources, managers responsible for information systems
applications and the personnel security issues involved.
However, all agency management must strive to:

1)  Achieve Cost-Effective Security

    The dollars spent for security measures to control or contain losses
    should never be more than the projected dollar loss if something
    adverse happened to the information resource.  Cost-effective security
    results when reduction in risk through implementation of safeguards is
    balanced with costs. The greater the value of information processed,
    or the more severe the consequences if something happens to it, the
    greater the need for control measures to protect it.  The person who
    can best determine the value or importance of data is the functional
    manager who is responsible for the data.  For example, the manager
    responsible for the agency's budget program is the one who should
    establish requirements for the protection of the automated data which
    supports the program. This manager knows better than anyone else in
    the organization what the impact will be if the data is inaccurate or
    unavailable.  Additionally, this manager usually is the supervisor of
    most of the users of the data.

    It is important that these trade-offs of cost versus risk
    reduction be explicitly considered, and that management understand
    the degree of risk remaining after selected controls are implemented.

2)  Assure Operational Continuity

    With ever-increasing demands for timely information and greater
    volumes of information being processed, the threat of information
    system disruption is a very serious one.  In some cases, interruptions
    of only a few hours are unacceptable.  The impact due to inability to
    process data should be assessed, and actions should be taken to assure
    availability of those systems considered essential to agency
    operation. Functional management must identify critical computer
    applications and develop contingency plans so that the probability of
    loss of data processing and telecommunications support is minimized.

3)  Maintain Integrity

    Integrity of information means you can trust the data and the
    processes that manipulate it. Not only does this mean that errors and
    omissions are minimized, but also that the information system is
    protected from deliberate actions to wrongfully change the data.
    Information can be said to have integrity when it corresponds to the
    expectations and assumptions of the users.

4)  Assure Confidentiality

    Confidentiality of sensitive data is often, but not always, a
    requirement of agency systems. Privacy requirements for personal
    information is dictated by statute, while confidentiality of
    another agency information is determined by the nature of that
    information, e.g., information submitted by bidders in
    procurement actions. The impact of wrongful disclosure must be
    considered in understanding confidentiality requirements.

5)  Comply with Applicable Laws and Regulations

    As risks and vulnerabilities associated with information systems
    become better understood, the body of law and regulations
    compelling positive action to protect information resources
    grows.  OMB Circular No. A-130, "Management of Federal
    Information Resources" and Public Law 100-235, "Computer Security
    Act of 1987" are two documents where the knowledge of these
    regulations and laws provide a baseline for an information
    resource security program.


Information Systems Development

This section describes the protective measures that should be included
as part of the design and development of information processing
application systems.  The functional manager that is responsible for
and will use the information contained in the system, must ensure that
security measures have been included and are adequate.  This includes
applications designed for personal computers as well as large
mainframes.


Control Decisions

The official responsible for the agency function served by the
automated information system has a critical role in making decisions
regarding security and control. In the past, risk was often
unconsciously accepted when such individuals assumed the computer
facility operators were taking care of security. In fact, there are
decisions to be made and security elements to be provided that cannot
be delegated to the operator of the system.  In many cases, the user
or manager develops the application and operates solely.

The cost of control must be balanced with system efficiency and
usability issues. Risk must be evaluated and cost-effective controls
selected to provide a prudent level of control while maximizing
productivity. Controls are often closely connected with the system
function, and cannot be effectively designed without significant
understanding of the process being automated.


Security Principles

There are some common security attributes that should be present in
any system that processes valuable personal or sensitive information.
System designs should include mechanisms to enforce the following
security attributes.

Identification and Authentication of Users
Each user of a computer system should have a unique
identification on the system, such as an account number or other
user identification code. There must also be a means of verifying
that the individual claiming that identity (e.g., by typing in
that identifying code at a terminal) is really the authorized
individual and not an imposter. The most common means of
authentication is by a secret password, known only to the
authorized user.

Authorization Capability Enforcing the Principle of Least
Possible Privilege
Beyond ensuring that only authorized individuals can access the
system, it is also necessary to limit the users access to information
and transaction capabilities. Each person should be limited to only
the information and transaction authority that is required by their
job responsibilities. This concept, known as the principle of least
possible privilege, is a long-standing control practice. There should
be a way to easily assign each user just the specific access
authorities needed.

Individual Accountability
From both a control and legal point of view, it is necessary to
maintain records of the activities performed by each computer user.
The requirements for automated audit trails should be developed when a
system is designed. The information to be recorded depends on what is
significant about each particular system. To be able to hold
individuals accountable for their actions, there must be a positive
means of uniquely identifying each computer user and a routinely
maintained record of each user's activities.

Audit Mechanisms
Audit mechanisms detect unusual events and bring them to the attention
of management. This commonly occurs by violation reporting or by an
immediate warning to the computer system operator. The type of alarm
generated depends on the seriousness of the event.

A common technique to detect access attempts by unauthorized
individuals is to count attempts. The security monitoring functions of
the system can automatically keep track of unsuccessful attempts to
gain access and generate an alarm if the attempts reach an
unacceptable number.

Performance Assurance
A basic design consideration for any information system should be the
ability to verify that the system is functioning as intended. Systems
that are developed without such design considerations are often very
difficult to independently audit or review, leading to the possibility
of unintended results or inaccurate processing.

Recoverability
Because Federal agencies can potentially be heavily dependent on a
computer system, an important design consideration is the ability to
easily recover from troublesome events, whether minor problems or
major disruptions of the system. From a design point of view, systems
should be designed to easily recover from minor problems, and to be
either transportable to another backup computer system or replaced by
manual processes in case of major disruption or loss of computer
facility.


Access Decisions

Once the automated system is ready to use, decisions must be made
regarding access to the system and the information it contains. For
example, many individuals require the ability to access and view data,
but not the ability to change or delete data. Even when computer
systems have been designed to provide the ability to narrowly
designate access authorities, a knowledgeable and responsible official
must actually make those access decisions. The care that is taken in
this process is a major determining factor of the level of security
and control present in the system. If sensitive data is being
transmitted over unprotected lines, it can be intercepted or passive
eavesdropping can occur.  Encrypting the files will make the data
unintelligible and port protection devices will protect the files from
unauthorized access, if warranted.


Systems Development Process

All information systems software should be developed in a controlled
and systematic manner according to agency standards.  The quality and
efficiency of the data processed, and the possible reconfiguration of
the system can all be affected by an inadequate development process.
The risk of security exposures and vulnerabilities is greatly reduced
when the systems development process is itself controlled.


Computer Facility Management

Functional managers play a critical role in assuring that agency
information resources are appropriately safeguarded. This section
describes the protective measures that should be incorporated into the
ongoing management of information resource processing facilities.  As
defined in OMB Circular No. A-130, "Management of Federal Information
Resources," the term "information technology facility" means an
organizationally defined set of personnel, hardware, software, and
physical facilities, a primary function of which is the operation of
information technology.  This section, therefore applies to any
manager who houses a personal computer, mainframe or any other form of
office system or automated equipment.


Physical Security

Information cannot be appropriately protected unless the facilities
that house the equipment are properly protected from physical threats
and hazards. The major areas of concern are described below.

Environmental Conditions
For many types of computer equipment, strict environmental conditions
must be maintained. Manufacturer's specifications should be observed
for temperature, humidity, and electrical power requirements.

Control of Media
The media upon which information is stored should be carefully
controlled. Transportable media such as tapes and cartridges should be
kept in secure locations, and accurate records kept of the location
and disposition of each. In addition, media from an external source
should be subject to a check-in process to ensure it is from an
authorized source.

Control of Physical Hazards
Each area should be surveyed for potential physical hazards.  Fire and
water are two of the most damaging forces with regard to computer
systems. Opportunities for loss should be minimized by an effective
fire detection and suppression mechanism, and planning reduces the
danger of leaks or flooding. Other physical controls include reducing
the visibility of the equipment and strictly limiting access to the
area or equipment.

Contingency Planning
Although risks can be minimized, they cannot be eliminated. When
reliance upon a computer facility or application is substantial, some
type of contingency plan should be devised to allow critical systems
to be recovered following a major disaster, such as a fire. There are
a number of alternative approaches that should be evaluated to most
cost-effectively meet the agency's need for continuity of service.

Configuration Management
Risk can be introduced through unofficial and unauthorized hardware or
software. Another key component of information resource management is
ensuring only authorized hardware and software are being utilized.
There are several control issues to be addressed.

Maintaining Accurate Records
Records of hardware/software inventories, configurations, and
locations should be maintained and kept up-to-date.

Complying with Terms of Software Licenses
Especially with microcomputer software, illegal copying and other uses
in conflict with licensing agreements are concerns.  The use of
software subject to licensing agreements must be monitored to ensure
it is used according to the terms of the agreement.

Protecting Against Malicious Software and Hardware
The recent occurrences of destructive computer "viruses" point to the
need to ensure that agencies do not allow unauthorized software to be
introduced to their computer environments.  Unauthorized hardware can
also contain hidden vulnerabilities.  Management should adopt a strong
policy against unauthorized hardware/software, inform personnel about
the risks and consequences of unauthorized additions to computer
systems, and develop a monitoring process to detect violations of the
policy.


Data Security

Management must ensure that appropriate security mechanisms are in
place that allow responsible officials to designate access to data
according to individual computer users' specific needs.  Security
mechanisms should be sufficient to implement individual authentication
of system users, allow authorization to specific information and
transaction authorities, maintain audit trails as specified by the
responsible official, and encrypt sensitive files if required by user
management.


Monitoring and Review

A final aspect of information resource protection to be considered is
the need for ongoing management monitoring and review. To be
effective, a security program must be a continuous effort. Ideally,
ongoing processes should be adapted to include information protection
checkpoints and reviews. Information resource protection should be a
key consideration in all major computer system initiatives.

Earlier, the need for system audit trails was discussed. Those audit
trails are useful only if management regularly reviews exception items
or unusual activities. Irregularities should be researched and action
taken when merited. Similarly, all information-related losses and
incidents should be investigated.

 A positive benefit of an effective monitoring process is an increased
understanding of the degree of information-related risk in agency
operations. Without an ongoing feedback process, management may
unknowingly accept too much risk. Prudent decisions about trade-offs
between efficiency and control can only be made with a clear
understanding of the degree of inherent risk. Every manager should ask
questions and periodically review operations to judge whether changes
in the environment have introduced new risk, and to ensure that
controls are working effectively.


Personnel Management

Managers must be aware that information security is more a people
issue than a technical issue. Personnel are a vital link in the
protection of information resources, as information is gathered by
people, entered into information resource systems by people, and
ultimately used by people. Security issues should be addressed with
regard to:
  o  People who use computer systems and store information in the
     course of their normal job responsibilities
  o  People who design, program, test, and implement critical or
     sensitive systems
  o  People who operate computer facilities that process critical or
     sensitive data


Personnel Security

From the point of hire, individuals who will have routine access to
sensitive information resources should be subject to special security
procedures. More extensive background or reference checks may be
appropriate for such positions, and security responsibilities should
be explicitly covered in employee orientations. Position descriptions
and performance evaluations should also explicitly reference unusual
responsibilities affecting the security of information resources.

Individuals in sensitive positions should be subject to job rotation,
and work flow should be designed in such a way as to provide as much
separation of sensitive functions as possible.  Upon decision to
terminate or notice of resignation, expedited termination or rotation
to less sensitive duties for the remainder of employment is a
reasonable precaution.

Any Federal computer user who deliberately performs or attempts to
perform unauthorized activity should be subject to disciplinary
action, and such disciplinary action must be uniformly applied
throughout the agency. Any criminal activity under Federal or state
computer crime laws must be reported to law enforcement authorities.


Training

Most information resource security problems involve people.  Problems
can usually be identified in their earliest stages by people who are
attuned to the importance of information protection issues. A strong
training program will yield large benefits in prevention and early
detection of problems and losses. To be most effective, training
should be tailored to the particular audience being addressed, e.g.,
executives and policy makers; program and functional managers; IRM
security and audit: ADP management and operations; end users.

Most employees want to do the right thing, if agency expectations are
clearly communicated. Internal policies can be enforced only if staff
have been made aware of their individual responsibilities. All
personnel who access agency computer systems should be aware of their
responsibilities under agency policy, as well as obligations under the
law. Disciplinary actions and legal penalties should be communicated.


For Additional Information

National Institute Of Standards and Technology
Computer Security Program Office, A-216 Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
[phone]

For further information on the management of information resources,
NIST publishes Federal Information Processing Standards Publications
(FIPS PUBS).  These publications deal with many aspects of computer
security, including password usage, data encryption, ADP risk
management and contingency planning, and computer system security
certification and accreditation.  A list of current publications is
available from:

                Standards Processing Coordinator (ADP)
                National Computer Systems Laboratory
                National Institute of Standards and Technology
                Technology Building, B-64
                Gaithersburg, MD  20899
                Phone: (301)  975-2817